Academic Background With the rapid development of artificial intelligence (AI) technology, intelligent tutoring systems (ITS) such as Khan Academy and Coursera have made significant progress in personalized learning. Knowledge Tracing (KT), as a key technology in ITS, aims to infer students’ knowledge mastery and predict their future learning perfo...

Scientific Report Background Introduction Perception and neuronal processing of sensory information are largely influenced by prior expectations. Perception is not merely passive reception, but an active inferential process by combining existing sensory information with prior information based on past experience and current context. The combination...