Biosensors and Biomarkers for the Detection of Motion Sickness

Medical Laboratory Science Nanoscience Artificial Intelligence Neurology Chemistry Information Science Sports Medicine Biochemistry Life Sciences Bioengineering Biophysics Medicine
motion sickness biomarkers biosensors non-invasive detection real-time monitoring

Exploring Biomarkers and Biosensors for Motion Sickness: Innovative Approaches to Diagnostic Challenges

Motion sickness (MS) is a common syndrome experienced by humans, triggered by unnatural motions such as those encountered during transportation or virtual reality (VR). It manifests through symptoms like headaches, nausea, vomiting, cold sweats, and pallor. In severe cases, it can lead to dehydration, electrolyte imbalances, as well as other somatic and psychological adverse effects. However, due to the lack of reliable objective indicators and real-time detection methods, precise diagnosis of motion sickness has remained a challenge in the medical field. While studies have shown correlations between motion sickness and certain physiological and biochemical markers, systematic reviews and standardized technological solutions are still absent. Addressing this gap, the scientific paper titled Biosensors and Biomarkers for the Detection of Motion Sickness delves into the pathogenesis, potential biomarkers, and biosensor technologies for motion sickness, offering new scientific perspectives for its precise diagnosis and personalized management.

The authors of the study, including Yanbing Wang, Chen Liu, Wenjie Zhao, Qingfeng Wang, Xu Sun, and Sheng Zhang, are affiliated with the University of Nottingham Ningbo China and Zhejiang University. Published in Advanced Healthcare Materials, the paper aims to summarize the pathological mechanisms and research advances in motion sickness, with a particular focus on electrochemical biosensors for real-time biomarker detection.

Pathogenesis and Biological Pathways of Motion Sickness

The paper begins by detailing the pathogenesis and biological pathways of motion sickness. MS is a complex physiological-psychological phenomenon involving the Sensory Conflict and Neural Mismatch Theory. This theory postulates that motion sickness arises when sensory information from the eyes, vestibular system, and proprioceptive organs conflicts with the brain’s predictions. Moreover, the onset of MS is accompanied by certain biological stress responses, including stress reactions, gastrointestinal symptoms, and thermoregulatory abnormalities.

  1. Stress Reactions: Motion stimuli activate the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, leading to the release of cortisol to mitigate the body’s stress response. Studies show that cortisol levels increase significantly after motion exposure.

  2. Gastrointestinal Symptoms: Enhanced activity of the sympathetic nervous system disrupts visceral nerve function, releasing neuromodulators like vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP), which exacerbates feelings of nausea and vomiting.

  3. Thermoregulatory Abnormalities: Core body temperature drops, and cold sweating occurs due to autonomous nervous system adjustments triggered by motion stimuli.

These reaction pathways form the foundation for exploring MS-associated biomarkers.

Classification of Motion Sickness Biomarkers

The authors classify motion sickness biomarkers into four categories, detailing their distinct characteristics:

  1. Stress Markers:

    • Cortisol: Its concentration correlates strongly with MS symptoms and individual sensitivity, particularly in hormonally sensitive females.
    • Salivary Alpha-Amylase (SAA): As a marker of acute stress, it reflects the activity of the autonomic nervous system.
    • Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH) and Arginine Vasopressin (AVP): Significantly associated with nausea and other symptoms.

  2. Reproductive Hormones:

    • Estrogen: Plays a critical role in female susceptibility to motion sickness, with levels peaking during ovulation and correlating with symptom severity.

  3. Electrolytes:

    • Sodium Ions: Increased salivary sodium levels reflect autonomic nervous activity triggered by motion stimuli.

  4. Metabolites:

    • Glucose: Acute stress responses significantly elevate glucose levels, particularly in severely affected patients.

Advances and Applications in Electrochemical Biosensors

To achieve real-time, non-invasive monitoring of the above biomarkers, the paper reviews current developments in electrochemical biosensor technologies. Key areas of exploration include:

1. Cortisol Biosensors

Antibodies, aptamers, and Molecularly Imprinted Polymers (MIPs) dominate cortisol detection platforms. Using current-voltage sensing techniques, researchers have enabled real-time, dynamic detection of cortisol in sweat and saliva.

For instance, one antibody-based sensor built with graphene and Bluetooth technology achieved high sensitivity (LOD as low as 0.08 ng/ml) and offers real-time data transmission.

2. Salivary Alpha-Amylase Sensors

Sensors are designed around two main strategies: direct recognition of SAA through antibodies and MIPs, or indirect detection based on the hydrolysis of starch into maltose and glucose. Some devices integrate with smartphones, significantly reducing operational complexity.

3. Estrogen Monitoring Sensors

Estrogen detection relies on both aptamer and antibody-based sensors. Aptamers deliver exceptional sensitivity (LOD as low as 0.14 pm), especially for applications in sweat monitoring.

4. Sodium Ion and Glucose Monitoring Sensors

Biosensing pacifiers designed for infants are gaining attention. These devices use modified electrode surfaces, such as sodium ion-selective membranes or glucose oxidase coatings, to enable real-time and continuous health monitoring.

Significance and Prospects

This review systematically summarizes advancements in biomarkers and biosensors for motion sickness and highlights the superiority of electrochemical biosensor technologies in this field. It holds significant scientific, practical, and technological value:

  1. Scientific Value: Establishes a complete chain from the pathophysiology of motion sickness to the identification of biomarkers, providing a basis for future standardized diagnostic protocols.

  2. Practical Applications: Wearable biosensors pave the way for personalized and intelligent management of motion sickness, especially for applications in VR experiences and autonomous vehicle adoption.

  3. Technological Innovation: By integrating flexible electronics, nanomanufacturing, and wireless data transmission, these sensing platforms significantly enhance both functionality and user experience.

Despite these achievements, challenges such as signal drift during prolonged monitoring, environmental interference, and long-term stability of recognition elements remain. Future sensor development will focus on multi-parameter detection platforms, self-powered devices, and active sampling technologies to achieve more precise monitoring and broader patient coverage.